Syllabus is a document with an outline and summary of topics to be covered in a course. It is often either set out by an exam board, or prepared by the professor who teaches the course, and is usually given to each student during the first class session. A syllabus usually contains specific information about the course, such as information on how, where and when to contact the lecturer and teaching assistants; an outline of what will be covered in the course; a schedule of test dates and the due dates for assignments; the grading policy for the course; specific classroom rules; etc.
Within many courses concluding in an exam, syllabi are used to ensure consistency between schools and that all teachers know what must be taught and what is not required. Exams can only test based on information included in the syllabus.
The common plural form syllabi is sometimes considered a hypercorrection, as we do not know that syllabus is a second-declension Latin noun, simply because there are not enough classical uses of the term to definitively discern its declension. If, as the vast majority of Latin nouns ending in "-us", "syllabus" belongs to the second-declension, the plural would be syllabi; if fourth, the plural would again be syllabus. For this reason, syllabi, syllabus, and syllabuses are all commonly accepted. However, the word syllabus originally comes from a mis-transliteration by Cicero, who mis-copied the word σιττύβας (accusative plural of σιττύβα, meaning label or title page) as syllabos, making any Latin-ized plural form technically incorrect.
The syllabus serves many purposes for the students and the teacher such as 1) ensuring a fair and upfront contract between the instructor and students such that there is minimal confusion on policies relating to the course, 2) setting clear expectations of a) material to be learned, b) behavior in the classroom, and c) effort of student's behalf to be put into the course, 3) providing a roadmap of course organization/direction 4) relaying the instructor's teaching philosophy to the students, and 5) providing a marketing angle of the course such that students may choose early in the course whether the subject material is attractive.
Many items can be included in a syllabus to maximize course organization and student understanding of expected material such as 1) grading policy (grading scale optional but helpful), 2) locations and times (classroom location/time, instructor office hours and location, teaching assistant office hours and location), 3) other contact information for instructor and teaching assistant such as phone or email, 4) materials required and/or recommended such as textbooks, assigned reading books, calculators (or other equipment), lab vouchers, etc 5) outside resources for subject material assistance (extra-curricular books, tutor locations, resource centers, etc), 6) important dates in course such as exams and paper due-dates 7) tips for succeeding in mastering course content such as study habits and expected time allotment, 8) suggested problems if applicable 9) necessary pre-requisites or co-requisites to current course, 10) safety rules if appropriate, and most importantly 11) objectives of course.
The syllabus must be clear and organized in its presentation of course objectives and the grading break-down should leave no confusion or doubt in the student's mind as to how she or he is scoring in the class. A helpful syllabus should encourage rather than intimidate students from the course and should provide a broad overpanning of subject significance as well as illustrate connectiveness of material relevance through the lecture schedule.

Crazy for You is a two act tap dancing musical comedy for stage written by Ken Ludwig featuring music by Ira and George Gershwin. Opening at the Shubert Theatre on Broadway on February 19, 1992, it originally ran for 1,622 performances. This musical is to a large extent an adaptation of the George and Ira Gershwin-written musical Girl Crazy (1930).
The Original Broadway cast included Beth Leavel as Tess, Stacey Logan as Patsy, Harry Groener as Bobby Child, Bruce Adler as Bela Zanger, Judine Hawkins Richard as Sheila, and Paula Leggett as Mitzi. Broadway veteran Ronn Carroll was featured as Everett Baker and Jodi Benson as Polly.
Crazy for You won the Tony Award for Best Musical in 1992.

Eugene Fodor
While Eugene Fodor is indeed the name of the founder of Fodor's Travel Guides, as implied by the fact that Eugene and Patricia are researching a guidebook to the American West, the character in the musical is highly fictionalized. The real Eugene Fodor was Hungarian-American, not British, and his first travel book was about Europe.

Bruno de Finetti (June 13, 1906 - July 20, 1985) was an Italian probabilist and statistician, noted for the "operational subjective" conception of probability. The classic exposition of his distinctive theory is the 1937 "La prévision: ses lois logiques, ses sources subjectives," Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré, 7, 1-68, which discussed probability founded on the coherence of betting odds and the consequences of exchangeability.

Work
De Finetti was born in Innsbruck, Austria and studied mathematics at Milan University. After graduation, he did not pursue an academic career but worked as an actuary and a statistician. He published extensively (17 papers in 1930 alone, according to Lindley) and acquired an international reputation in the small world of probability mathematicians. He won a chair in Financial Mathematics at Trieste University (1939). In 1954 he moved to the University of Rome, first to another chair in Financial Mathematics and then, from 1961 to 1976, one in the Calculus of Probabilities. De Finetti developed his ideas on subjective probability in the 1920s independently of Frank P. Ramsey. He only became known in the Anglo-American statistical world in the 1950s when L. J. Savage, who had independently adopted subjectivism, drew him into it; another great champion was Dennis Lindley. De Finetti died in Rome.

de Finetti in English
The following books have a chapter on de Finetti and references to further literature.

D. V. Lindley, "Bruno de Finetti, 1906-1985 (Obituary)" Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 149, p. 252 (1986).
Jan von Plato, Creating Modern Probability : Its Mathematics, Physics, and Philosophy in Historical Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994
Donald Gillies, Philosophical Theories of Probability, London: Routledge, 2000.

The University of Hawaiʻi, formally the University of Hawaiʻi System and popularly known as UH, is a public, co-educational college and university system that confers associate, bachelor, master, doctoral and post-doctoral degrees through three university campuses, seven community college campuses, an employment training center, three university centers, four education centers and various other research facilities distributed across six islands throughout the State of Hawaiʻi in the United States. All schools of the University of Hawaiʻi system are accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.

Colleges and universities

University of Hawaiiʻi at Manoa
University of Hawaiiʻi at Hilo
University of Hawaiiʻi-West Oahu Universities

Hawaiʻi Community College
Honolulu Community College
Kapiʻolani Community College
Kauaʻi Community College
Leeward Community College
Maui Community College
Windward Community College Community colleges

College of Pharmacy
John A. Burns School of Medicine
William S. Richardson School of Law Professional schools

Institute for Astronomy
Lyon Arboretum
W. M. Keck Observatory
Mauna Kea Observatory
Waikīkī Aquarium Research facilities

University of Hawaiʻi Center West Hawaiʻi
University of Hawaiʻi Center Kauaʻi
University of Hawaiʻi Center Maui University centers

Molokaʻi Education Center
Lānaʻi Education Center
Hana Education Center
Waiʻanae Education Center Education centers
The mission of the University of Hawaiʻi system is to provide quality college and university education and training; create knowledge through research and scholarship; provide service through extension, technical assistance, and training; contribute to the cultural heritage of the community; and respond to state needs. The campuses, organized under one board, differentially emphasize instruction, research, and service. The system's special distinction is found in its Hawaiian, Asian, and Pacific orientation and international leadership role. Common values bind the system together: aloha; academic freedom and intellectual vigor; institutional integrity and service; quality and opportunity; diversity, fairness, and equity; collaboration and respect; and accountability and fiscal integrity.

Statistics
The University seal contains a torch and a book titled Malamalama (the light of knowledge) in the center of a circular map of the Pacific, surrounded by the state motto, Ua mau ke ea o ka ʻaina i ka pono ("The life of the land is perpetuated in (by) righteousness".) The University motto, inscribed in both the Hawaiian and English languages on Founders' Gate at the Mānoa campus is Ma luna aʻe o na lahui a pau ke ola o ke kanaka ("Above all nations is humanity").

University seal

List of University of Hawaii faculty
List of University of Hawaii alumni Presidents
The University's governing board includes a current student appointed by the Governor of Hawaiʻi to serve a two-year term as a full voting regent. The practice of appointing a student to the Board was approved by the Hawaiʻi State Legislature in 1997.

Mr. Michael A. Dahilig (2005-present)
Mr. Trent K. Kakuda (2003-2005)
Mr. Capsun M. Poe (2001-2003)
Mr. Sat Khalsa (1999-2001)
Mr. Wayne Panoke (1998)

Fife and drum blues is a rural derivation of traditional country blues. It is performed typically with one lead fife player often also the band leader and vocalist, and a troop of drummers. The drum troop is loosely structured unlike drum corps and may have any number of snare, tom, and bass drum players. Fife and drum performances were family affairs often held at reunions and big picnics. It is suggested by most texts that it has roots not in the American Revolutionary War, but actually in Africa; the use of fife is merely a replacement for instruments the slaves had used in Africa.
Fifes were carved from cane that grew locally. Drums were often hand-made, and equally often just percussive objects. The vocals seem to derive from two main styles:
The genre originates in very rural areas of the farming South and today persists in a stretch of sparely populated Southern states stretching from northwest Georgia to an area south of Memphis. Notable performers are Napoleon Strickland, Dan Emmett, Othar Turner, and Jessie Mae Hemphill. Performers play blues songs as well as religious songs such as "When the Saints Go Marching In" and "When I Lay My Burden Down."

Traditional call and response of Black Spirituals
Short, repetitive lyrics Further viewing

American Patchwork: Songs and Stories of America, part 3: "The Land Where the Blues Began" (1990). Written, directed, and produced by Alan Lomax; developed by the Association for Cultural Equity at Columbia University and Hunter College. North Carolina Public TV; A Dibb Direction production for Channel Four. (Watch film: The Land Where the Blues Began)
Deep Blues (1991). Directed by Robert Mugge.
Gravel Springs Fife and Drum (1971). Filmed by Bill Ferris, recorded by David Evans, and edited by Judy Peiser. (Watch film: Gravel Springs Fife and Drum

The Circle of Tchaikovsky, also known as Tchaikovtsy, Chaikovtsy, or the Grand Propaganda Society (Чайковцы, Большое общество пропаганды in Russian) was a Russian literary society for self-education and a revolutionary organization of the Narodniks in the early 1870s.

It does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by citing reliable sources. Tagged since March 2007. Its notability is in question. If notability cannot be established, this article may be listed for deletion. Tagged since November 2007.
Activities
One of the first tasks of the Tchaikovtsy was to organize printing, publishing, and distribution of scientific and revolutionary literature with the help of publishers Nikolai Polyakov, Kozma Soldatyonkov, and others. These literary works included the first volume of Das Kapital by Karl Marx, books by Nikolai Chernyshevsky, Nikolai Dobrolyubov, Alexander Herzen, Pyotr Lavrov, Vasili Bervi, Ferdinand Lassalle, Charles Darwin, John Stuart Mill, and others. In the summer of 1871, the circle of Natanson merged with a female self-education circle of Alexandra Kornilova and Sophia Perovskaya. Soon, they were joined by Sergei Kravchinsky, Dmitry Klements, Sergei Sinegub, Nikolai Charushin, Leonid Shishko, and others. The central Petersburg circle comprised around 60 people. Circles in Moscow (Nikolai Morozov, Lev Tikhomirov, Mikhail Frolenko), Odessa (Felix Volkhovsky, Andrei Zhelyabov), Kiev (Yakov Stefanovich, Pavel Axelrod) and other cities sided with the Petersburg cell on a federative basis. Altogether, the Tchaikovtsy numbered around 100 people.
In 1872, the Tchaikovtsy began organizing circles of workers with the purpose of training propagandists for work in the countryside. These activities were most successful in Petersburg and Odessa, where the circles comprised around 400 workers, some of whom (Viktor Obnorsky, Feodor Kravchenko, and others) would later become the founders of the first proletarian organizations, such as the Worker's Union of Southern Russia (Южнороссийский союз рабочих) and Northern Union of the Russian Workers (Северный союз русских рабочих). The results of this propaganda work were summarized in a report by Peter Kropotkin, which would be discussed in the Petersburg circle of the Tchaikovtsy in late 1873.
The final stage of activities of the Tchaikovtsy included the Call to the people campaign.

For Fagus, the genus of trees, see beech.
In Gallo-Roman religion, Fagus was a god known from four inscriptions found in the Hautes-Pyrénées.

Louis "Lepke" Buchalter (12 February 1897 - 4 March 1944) was an American mobster of the 1930s. He is the only major mob boss ever to have been executed by state or federal authorities for his crimes.

Establishment
As many as a hundred corpses have been attributed to Buchalter. Some of the hitmen at Buchalter's disposal included Abe "Kid Twist" Reles, Seymour "Blue Jaw Magoon, Frank "Dasher" Abbandando, Harry "Happy" Maione, Albert "Tick-Tock Tannenbaum, and Harry "Pittsburgh Phil" Strauss (known as "Pittsburgh Phil" despite his having no known connection to that city). The killing of Dutch Schultz on 23 October 1935 was a major killing for the group, as was the murder of Louis "Pretty" Amberg the same day.

Legacy
Buchalter's downfall began in the mid-1930s when he went on the run from both the FBI, who wanted to arrest him on a narcotics charge, and from New York City special prosecutor Thomas E. Dewey, who wanted him tried for his syndicate activities. He was tricked by a childhood friend into surrendering to the federal government in exchange for his not being turned over to Dewey.
Buchalter's order for the Rosen hit had been overheard by Abe Reles, who turned informant for New York State in 1940 and fingered Buchalter for four murders. Brought back from Leavenworth to Brooklyn to stand trial for the Rosen slaying, Buchalter's position was worsened by the testimony of Albert Tannenbaum. Four hours after they were handed the case, the jury arrived at a verdict at two a.m. on November 30, 1941, finding Buchalter guilty of first degree murder. The penalty at the time for such a crime in the state of New York was death by electrocution. Also convicted and sentenced to death for the same crime were two of Buchalter's lieutenants who had participated in the planning and carrying out of the Rosen murder, Emanuel "Mendy" Weiss, and Louis Capone (no relation to Al).

Downfall
Buchalter's conviction took place in December 1941, and the New York Court of Appeals, upon review of his case, upheld his conviction and death sentence in October 1942. At the time, Buchalter was serving his racketeering sentence at Leavenworth Federal Prison, and New York state authorities demanded that he be turned over to them for execution. Buchalter resisted, managing to remain in Kansas and out of New York's hands until finally extradited in January 1944. Buchalter and his lieutenants Weiss and Capone were electrocuted within minutes of each other at New York's Sing Sing prison on March 4, 1944.

In popular culture

Messick, Hank. Lansky. London: Robert Hale & Company, 1973. ISBN 0-7091-3966-7
Kavieff, Paul R. The Life and Times of Lepke Buchalter: America's Most Ruthless Labor Racketeer, Barricade Books, 2006. ISBN 1-56980-291-2

A debutante (or deb) (from the French débutante, "female beginner") is a young lady from an aristocratic or upper class family who has reached the age of maturity, and as a new adult, is introduced to society at a formal presentation known as her "debut" or "coming out". Originally, it meant the young woman was eligible for marriage, and part of the purpose was to display her to eligible bachelors and their families with a view to marriage within a select upper class circle. This traditional event varies by region, but is typically referred to as a debutante ball if it is for a group of debutantes. A lone debutante might have her own "coming-out party", or she might have a party with a sister or other close relative.

United Kingdom
In Australia, some debutante balls (or colloquially "deb balls") are held in year 11 or 12 of the Australian Government funded school system through the school, although some are held outside the school system by organisations such as the local chapter of Lions Club. Girls do not have to 'make their deb' and today many girls elect not to or see deb balls as irrelevant. Equally, the ongoing tradition indicates that the debutante ball as rite of passage is alive and well in Australia.
It is customary for the female to ask a male to the debutante ball, with males not being able to "do the deb" unless they are asked. Debutante ball students who are partaking in the official proceedings must learn how to ballroom dance. Debutante balls are almost always held in a reception centre or ballroom. Usually they are held late in the year and consist of dinner, dancing and speeches by the school captains. Schools often restrict invitations to the debutante ball to students within the grade level at one school, but single-sex schools tend to allow a partner with no association to the school to attend. The debutante ball traditionally is a rite of passage for some Australian school students, both male and female, and represents their coming of age. They are often, but not always, similar to American proms. [2].
The girl wears a white wedding dress-like ball gown, called a Debutante Dress, while the boy wears a tuxedo.
When a girl attends a non-Government school, the girl is invited to take part and her family pay for the ball. They are presented to the Governor of the State or other dignitary.

Australia
In Ireland, Debutante balls have most in common with the high school prom of the United States. This type of ball is referred to as a "debs" or a "debs ball". Each secondary school will host their own ball; usually in September/October. Most schools have the debs in the autumn after the final year, but some chose to begin the final year with the debs. In some schools, before the debs, a smaller ball, known as a pre-debs or mini-debs is held; usually January/February but sometimes as late as May. Often a Debs committee is established to organise a Debs. These are usually organised by someone other than the school itself. Debs balls occur at the end of the final year of second-level students, but there are many variations on when this can occur, some are as early as mid July, whilst others can be as late as Christmas. Traditionally a committee is created in the school to organise the event. Normally, the person asking someone else to the debs will pay for both tickets.
Many students worry about being invited or finding a date, though it is rare for students not to attend for this reason. Often, students try to find a date they have affections for. This is not always the case, and many attend with friends or in a group, not worrying about the dating aspect. Occasionally, depending on the school, students from the year below that studied the optional transition year, and so are a year behind, are entitled to go. Whether the female asks the male, or vice versa, is irrelevant. Boys are usually attired in dinner jackets with bowties, occasionally with brightly colored cummerbunds or waistcoats. Girls usually wear formal gowns or dresses adorned with a corsage given to them by their date. It is customary for boys to purchase an orchid or bouquet of flowers and/or a box of chocolates to give to their date's mother. Where the ball is held at a venue outside the locality, couples will sometimes travel to the venue by limousine, a tradition which has become more widespread as prosperity has increased.
Social class has no effect on the debs, each school has a debs, regardless of social status. People in informal dress can still be present, though this is a rare occurrence. Dancing is optional and never as formal as ballroom style, though it is polite for the male to ask his date to dance at least once, and to buy her all her drink during the night. Photographs from the event are often featured in local newspapers. It is common for attendees not to return home until the following morning, often going for breakfast together in groups in town (while still in their formal evening clothes) or to stay at someone else's house that night and return home, sometimes in a tired and emotional state!

Ireland
A cotillion or debutante ball in the United States is a formal presentation of young ladies, debutantes, to polite society. Debutantes are usually recommended by a distinguished committee or sponsored by an established member of elite society.
Wearing white gowns and satin or kid gloves, the debutantes stand in a receiving line, and then are introduced individually to the audience. The debutante is announced and then is walked around the stage, guided by her father who then presents her. Her younger male escort then joins her and escorts her away. Each debutante brings at least one escort, sometimes two. Many debutante balls select escorts and then pair them with the debs to promote good social pairings. Cotillions may be elaborate formal affairs and involve not only "debs" but junior debutantes, escorts and ushers, flower girls and pages as well. Every debutante must perform a curtsy also known as the Saint Johns Bow or a full court bow. This gesture is made as the young woman is formally presented.
Debutante balls exist in nearly every major city in the United States but are more common and a larger affair in the South. Many cities such as Dallas and Atlanta have multiple balls in a season. Dallas, for example, is home of the ultra-prestigious Idlewild debutante season. It also has less-pretentious debutante seasons such as The Dallas Symphony Orchestra Presentation Ball and La Fiesta de las Seis Banderas. They are often charity occasions, in which the parents of the young ladies, as well as all attending, must contribute a certain sum of money to the cause at hand. In New Orleans, Louisiana, a debutante is usually presented during the Carnival season.
As an alternative to a ball, and more commonly in the North, a young woman might have her own "coming-out party", given by her parents. Unlike a collective ball, which would be only held at a certain time of the year, such a party could be at any time of the year, but might well be scheduled around the debutante's birthday. In theory, the only women who could be invited would be those who had already made their debuts, thus affording a sort of rank-order to the debutante season.
Metropolitan (film), Whit Stillman's debut feature film, is a comedy of manners, set during the deb season in Manhattan.
In "She's the Man", a 2006 film, Amanda Bynes plays a tom boy soccer-loving girl, who initially dismisses the idea of being a debutante as "totally archaic", but in the end succumbs to it.
"The Debut", an episode of the The O.C. (a drama about upper class Californians), featured a representation of an American debutante ball.
"Presenting Lorelai Gilmore", an episode of Gilmore Girls shows Rory Gilmore as a debutante. She makes her debut at a DAR debutante ball that her grandmother helped put together.
"Waiting Tables", an episode of CSI: NY, featured the CSI team investigating the murder of a debutante. Medical examiner Evan Zao comments that he attended a debutante ball.
"Debut", an episode of Cold Case, tells the story of a young girl who is murdered the night of her debutante ball.
"Something New", a romantic comedy has a cottilion scene of upper class African Americans on the west coast.
"The Debut, a film about considered to be an accurate snapshot of contemporary Filipino American life, and touches upon a wide variety of cultural themes within the plot of a debutante event.

Latin America

Aristocracy
Boston Brahmin
Bachelor and Spinster Balls
Cotillion
Preppy
Social Register
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant

The Aravalli Range is a range of mountains in western India running approximately 300 miles from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan state. The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana state, ending near Delhi. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu. Rising to 5653 feet, it lies near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with the Gujrat District. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the south slope of the range in Rajasthan.
The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of a range of ancient folded mountains. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.

Biography
Some of the shows Phil Keoghan has been involved with include:

3.45 Live (1990) Presenter
The Amazing Race (2001-present) Host
Best of Both Worlds Co-host
Breakfast Time Road Warrior
The Early Show Travel Correspondent
FOX After Breakfast (1996) Reporter
Go For It Host
The Human Edge (2002) Co-creator
Phil Keoghan's Adventure Crazy Co-creator
Adventure Quest Host
Keoghan's Heroes Co-creator
Miss World 2003 (2003) Host
No Opportunity Wasted (2004) Host
Spot On Host
Surprise, Surprise Host
Whose House is it Anyway? (2000) Host
Speed Test Drive (2006) Cameo appearance as a student of the Jim Russell Racing School Trivia

Pragmatics is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated. The ability to understand another speaker's intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. An utterance describing pragmatic function is described as metapragmatic. One thing we might add, is that pragmatics deals about how to reach our goal in communcation. Suppose, we want to ask someone beside us to stop smoking. We can achieve that goal by using several utterances. We can say, 'stop smoking, please!' which is direct. We can also say in an indirect way, just like 'sir, this room has air conditioners'. In this way, we want the smoker to understand that he or she is not allowed to smoke in an air conditioned room.
Pragmatics is regarded as one of the most challenging aspects for language learners to grasp, and can only truly be learned with experience.

Origins
Roman Jakobson identified six functions of language, only one of which is the traditional system of reference.
Émile Benveniste discussed pronouns "I" and "you", arguing that they are fundamentally distinct from other pronouns because of their role in creating the subject.
Michael Silverstein has argued that the "non-referential index" communicates meaning without being explicitly attached to semantic content.

referential: conveys information about some real phenomenon
expressive: describes feelings of the speaker
conative: attempts to elicit some behavior from the addressee
phatic: builds a relationship between both parties in a conversation
metalingual: self-references
poetic: focuses on the text independent of reference Related fields
Pragmatics helps anthropologists relate elements of language to broader social phenomena; it thus pervades the field of linguistic anthropology. Because pragmatics describes generally the forces in play for a given utterance, it includes the study of power, gender, race, identity, and their interactions with individual speech acts. For example, the study of code switching directly relates to pragmatics, since a switch in code effects a shift in pragmatic force.

Linguistic Anthropology
Jaques Derrida once remarked that some of linguistic pragmatics aligned well with the program he outlined in Of Grammatology.
Linguistic pragmatics underpins Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity. In Gender Trouble, she describes how gender and sex are not natural categories, but called into being by discourse. In Excitable Speech she extends her theory of performativity to hate speech, arguing that the designation of certain utterances as "hate speech" affects their pragmatic function.
Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari discuss linguistic pragmatics in the fourth chapter of A Thousand Plateaus ("November 20, 1923--Postulates of Linguistics"). They draw three conclusions from Austin: (1) A performative utterance doesn't communicate information about an act second-hand—it does the act; (2) Every aspect of language ("semantics, syntactics, or even phonematics") functionally interacts with pragmatics; (3) The distinction between language and speech is untenable. This last conclusion attempts to simultaneously refute Saussure's division between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between surface structure and deep structure.

Pragmatics in Philosophy

Paul Grice's cooperative principle and conversational maxims
Brown & Levinson's Politeness Theory
Geoffrey Leech's politeness maxims
Levinson's Presumptive Meanings
Jürgen Habermas's universal pragmatics
Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson's relevance theory Significant works

Entailment
Deixis
Implicature
Practical reason
Presupposition
Speech act Topics in pragmatics

Bibliography

Charles Peirce
Charles Peirce (Bibliography)
Paul Grice
Semiotics
Sign relation
Sitz im Leben
Stephen D. Levinson
William James

An affirmative defense is a category of defense used in litigation between private parties in common law jurisdictions, or, more familiarly, a type of defense raised in criminal law by the defendant. Affirmative defenses operate to limit or excuse or avoid a defendant's criminal culpability or civil liability, even if the factual allegations of plaintiff's claim are admitted or proven.
A clear illustration of an affirmative defense is self-defense. In its simplest form, a criminal defendant may be exonerated, if he can demonstrate that he had an honest and reasonable belief that his conduct was necessary to protect himself against another's use of unlawful force.
Among the most controversial affirmative defenses is the insanity defense, whereby a criminal defendant, shown to be insane at the time of their crime, seeks commitment to a mental institution in lieu of imprisonment.
An affirmative defense must be timely pleaded by the defendant in order for the court to consider it, or else it is considered waived by the defendant's failure to assert it. What constitutes timely assertion is often itself the subject of contentious litigation.
Because an affirmative defense requires an assertion of facts beyond those claimed by the plaintiff, generally the party making an affirmative defense bears the burden of proof. The burden of proof is typically lower than beyond a reasonable doubt. It can either be proof by clear and convincing evidence or a preponderance of the evidence.
Rule 8 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure governs the assertion of affirmative defenses in civil cases filed in the United States district courts. Rule 8(c) specifically enumerates the following defenses: "accord and satisfaction, arbitration and award, assumption of risk, contributory negligence, discharge in bankruptcy, duress, estoppel, failure of consideration, fraud, illegality, injury by fellow servant, laches, license, payment, release, res judicata, statute of frauds, statute of limitations, waiver, and any other matter constituting an avoidance or affirmative defense."

Creigiau is a dormitory settlement near Cardiff, in Wales, UK. It currently has about 1,000 houses, containing a population of approximately 2,400 people. Its industrial centre was a quarry, which opened in the 1870s, but closed down in 2001. For decades Creigiau was a tranquil retreat, popular with day-trippers from Cardiff and Barry (to which it was linked by a railway later torn up by Dr Beeching). In the mid 1970s, housing estates sprang up to accommodate commuters and pensioners. The village in its modern form was predicated on universal access to a motor car, and public transport became expensive and infrequent. Further expansion took place in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Creigiau is now a village of a type common around the edges of British cities, seen by some as lacking individuality and at odds with its surroundings. The village is well-known locally for its golf club. It has one of the highest volumes of Welsh speakers per capita of any region in Wales, and also one of the highest employment rates of any area in Wales. Local amenities include one of the finest primary schools in Wales, which teaches through the medium of Welsh and English. There is also a small local Tesco shop which brings people in from miles around together with a Post Office, surgery, and local pub known as The Creigiau Inn, where a popular quiz night is held every Tuesday. The crime rate is low, and this is almost certainly as a result of the responsible interest people take in the village.

Logan County is a county located in the state of Ohio, United States. As of 2000, the population was 46,005. The county seat is Bellefontaine.

Adjacent counties
Two U.S. Routes pass through Logan County: U.S. Route 33, which runs from northwest to southeast through the middle of the county, and U.S. Route 68, which runs north-south through the middle of the county. While US 68 is two lanes throughout Logan County, US 33 is two lanes only between the Auglaize County line and Huntsville; from Huntsville to the Union County line, it is a four-lane freeway.
Among state routes, the chief highway is State Route 47, a two-lane highway that runs east-west through the middle of the county. Other state highways in Logan County include State Routes 117, 235, 245, 273, 274, 287, 292, 347, 365, 366, 368, 508, 533, 540, 559, 706, 708, and 720.

Major highways
2000 46,005 1990 42,310 1980 39,155 1970 35,072 1960 34,803 1950 31,329 1940 29,624 1930 28,981 1920 30,104 1910 30,084 1900 30,420 1890 27,386 1880 26,267 1870 23,028 1860 20,996 1850 19,162 1840 14,015 1830 6,440 1820 3,159 As of the census of 2000, there were 46,005 people, 17,956 households, and 12,730 families residing in the county. The population density was 100 people per square mile (39/km²). There were 21,571 housing units at an average density of 47 per square mile (18/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 96.15% White, 1.71% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.27% from other races, and 1.24% from two or more races. 0.72% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 96.8% spoke English, 1.0% German and 1.0% Spanish as their first language.
There were 17,956 households out of which 33.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.00% were married couples living together, 9.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.10% were non-families. 24.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.01.
In the county, the population was spread out with 26.70% under the age of 18, 8.20% from 18 to 24, 27.90% from 25 to 44, 23.30% from 45 to 64, and 13.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 96.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.60 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $41,479, and the median income for a family was $47,516. Males had a median income of $37,134 versus $24,739 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,984. About 7.10% of families and 9.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.80% of those under age 18 and 8.50% of those age 65 or over.

Demographics
Main article: Ohio county government.

Government

Localities
There are twelve incorporated municipalities in Logan County:

Municipalities

Bellefontaine Cities

Belle Center
De Graff
Huntsville
Lakeview
Quincy
Rushsylvania
Russells Point
Valley Hi
West Liberty
West Mansfield
Zanesfield Townships
There are also a number of unincorporated places in Logan County:

Big Springs
East Liberty
Horton
Lewistown
Logansville
Middleburg
New Jerusalem
North Greenfield
Northwood
Pickrelltown
Walnut Grove

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Syria
Dr Bashar al-Assad (Arabic: بشار الأسد, Baššār al-Asad) (born 11 September 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary of the Baath Party, and the son of former President Hafez al-Assad.

Constitution
President

• Bashar al-Assad
  Vice President
  
  
  
  • Farouk al-Sharaa
    Prime Minister
    
    
    
    • Muhammad Naji al-Otari
      People's Council
      Political parties
      
      
      
      • Baath Party
        Elections:
        
        
        
        • 2007 pres.
          2007 parl.
          Governorates
          
          
          
          • Districts
            Human rights
            Foreign relations
            Foreign aid Presidency
            The United States, European Union, Lebanon, Israel, and France accuse Assad of logistically supporting militant groups aimed at Israel and any opposing member to his regime. These include Hezbollah, Fatah al-Islam, and Islamic Jihad. Israel has lately offered the return of the Golan Heights if Assad cooperates.
            
            Foreign relations
            A major crisis began with the death of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri in February 2005, which has been blamed on Syria in the media. According to Assad, Syria had been withdrawing troops from Lebanon beginning in 2000, but due to this event, was forced to pull out the rest of the forces and security services from Lebanon. Assad has refused to be questioned himself or for other high-ranking Syrian officials to be questioned by the special UN prosecutor in connection to Hariri's murder. In summation, the Hariri affair has proved the most pressing crisis for the Syrian government in decades, possibly since Hafez al-Assad seized power.
            
            2005 Lebanon crisis
            In a speech about the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict, on August 15, 2006, Bashar al-Assad said that Israel had suffered a defeat in that war and that Hezbollah had "hoisted the banner of victory" and hailed its actions as a "successful resistance." He called Israel an "enemy," with whom no peace could be achieved as long as they and their allies (especially the U.S.) support the practice of preemptive war. As a consequence of these remarks, German Foreign Minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier, who had been seeking to help as a broker in the Middle East peace process, called off a planned visit to Damascus.
            
            2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict
            Standing about 189 cm (6 ft 2 in), Assad has a distinct physical build. He speaks English from an intermediate to an advanced level and is mediocre in French, having studied at the Franco-Arab al-Hurriyet school in Damascus, before going on to medical school at the University of Damascus Faculty of Medicine. He completed his Ophthalmology Residency training in the Military Hospital of Lattakia,subsequently he went on to get subspecialty training in ophthalmology at the Western Eye Hospital in London.
            The Assad family are members of the minority Alawite sect, and members of that group have been prominent in the governmental hierarchy and army since 1963 when the Baath Party first came to power. Their origins are to be found in the Latakia region of north-west Syria. Bashar's family is originally from Qardaha, just east of Latakia.
            
            Personal life
            Family connections are presently an important part of Syrian politics. Several close family members of Hafez al-Assad have held positions within the government since his rise to power, most notably of course Bashar himself. Most of the al-Assad and Makhlouf families have also grown tremendously wealthy, and parts of that fortune have reached their Alawite tribe in Qardaha and its surroundings. The following is a list of some of Bashar's most prominent relatives:
            
            Hafez al-Assad, father. Former president. Died in 2000.
            Rifaat al-Assad, uncle. Formerly a powerful security chief; now in exile in France after attempting a coup d'êtat in 1984
            Jamil al-Assad, uncle. Parliamentarian, commander of a minor militia.
            Anisah Makhlouf, mother.
            Basil al-Assad, brother. Original candidate for succession. Died in an automobile accident in 1994.
            Majd al-Assad, brother. Electrical engineer; widely reported to have mental problems.
            Lt. Col. Maher al-Assad, brother. Head of Presidential Guard.
            Dr. Bushra al-Assad, sister. Pharmacist. Said to be a strong influence on both Hafez and Bashar, sometimes called the "brain" of Syrian politics. Married to Gen. Assef Shawqat.
            General Adnan Makhlouf, cousin of Anisah. Commands the Republican Guard.
            Adnan al-Assad, cousin of Hafez. Leader of "Struggle companies" militia in Damascus.
            Muhammad al-Assad, cousin of Hafez. Another leader of the "Struggle companies".
            General Assef Shawqat, brother-in-law. Husband of Bushra. Present head of military intelligence, close associate of Bashar. See also
            
            Bashar Al-Assad (Major World Leaders) by Susan Muaddi Darraj, (June 2005, Chelsea House Publications) ISBN 0-7910-8262-8 for young adults
            Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change by Volker Perthes, (2004, Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-856750-2 (Adelphi Papers #366)
            Bashar's First Year: From Ophthalmology to a National Vision (Research Memorandum) by Yossi Baidatz, (2001, Washington Institute for Near East Policy) ISBN B0006RVLNM
            Syria: Revolution From Above by Raymond Hinnebusch (Routledge; 1st edition, August 2002) ISBN 0-415-28568-2

The series of Presidential primary elections and caucuses is one of the first steps in the process of electing the President of the United States of America. The primary elections and caucuses provide a method for U.S. political parties to nominate and unite behind their popularly chosen candidate for the Presidency.

Process
Campaigning for president often begins a year or more before the New Hampshire primary, almost two years before the presidential election.
For 2008, both the Republicans and the Democrats have moved their Nevada caucus to an earlier date than traditional, with the Democrats holding theirs on January 19th, and the Republicans holding theirs on February 7. [1] However, on August 9, 2007, National Public Radio's All Things Considered reported that South Carolina's Republican primary date would be January 19.
In response to the Democratic Nevada Caucus being scheduled before the New Hampshire Primary, New Hampshire is widely expected to move their primary to January 8. [3]
The first binding event, in which a candidate can secure convention delegates, is traditionally the Iowa caucus, held in January of the presidential election year. It is followed by the New Hampshire primary two weeks later, by tradition and state law always the first primary.
Because these states are small, campaigning takes place on a much more personal scale. As a result, even a little-known, underfunded candidate can use "retail politics" to meet intimately with interested voters and perform better than expected. The Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have produced a number of headline-making upsets in history.
In recent years states have been holding early primaries to maximize their leverage (see below). California moved its primary back to June in 2004, having moved it to March in 1996.

January 14—Iowa Caucus
January 15—Michigan Primary [2]
January 19—Democratic Nevada Caucus / Republican South Carolina Primary
January 22—New Hampshire Primary (tentative)
January 29—Florida Primary
February 5―West Virginia Republican Presidential Convention (Results at 4 PM EST) / California Primary / Arizona Primary
February 7―Republican Nevada Caucus
February 12—Pennsylvania Primary
February 19―Washington State Primary
Harry S. Truman ended his re-election bid in 1952 after losing the New Hampshire primary. [4]
Lyndon Baines Johnson dropped his 1968 reelection bid after performing far below expectations in the New Hampshire primary.
Jimmy Carter, the little-known governor of Georgia, took a surprise win in 1976 and rode it to the presidency.
Television commentator Pat Buchanan's strong showing in the 1992 and 1996 New Hampshire primaries highlighted the weakness of the future nominees, incumbent George H. W. Bush and Senator Bob Dole respectively, both of whom subsequently lost the general election.
John McCain, a senator from Arizona, defeated George W. Bush in the New Hampshire primary in 2000, making it a close contest. (McCain lost the next primaries.)
John Kerry won both the Iowa caucus and New Hampshire primary over heavily favored Howard Dean to win the 2004 Democratic nomination. Calendar
Franchise in a primary is governed by rules established by the state party, although the states may impose other regulations.
Nearly all states have a binding primary, in which the results of the election legally bind some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. A handful of states practice a non-binding primary, which may select candidates to a state convention which then selects delegates. Also, presidential preference contests exist, which are merely "beauty contests" or straw polls that do not result in the selection of any delegates, which are instead chosen at caucuses. Both parties have rules which designate superdelegates.
In most states, only voters registered with a party may vote in that party's primary, known as a closed primary. In some states, a semi-closed primary is practiced, in which voters unaffiliated with a party (independents) may choose a party primary in which to vote. In an open primary, any voter may vote in any party's primary. In all of these systems, a voter may participate in only one primary; that is, a voter who casts a vote for a candidate standing for the Republican nomination for president cannot cast a vote for a candidate standing for the Democratic nomination, or vice versa. A few states once staged a blanket primary, in which voters could vote for one candidate in multiple primaries, but the practice was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 2000 case of California Democratic Party v. Jones as violating the freedom of assembly guaranteed by the First Amendment.

Types of primary
There is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution, as political parties did not develop until the early 19th century. Before 1820 Democratic-Republican members of Congress would nominate a single candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824 and by 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination was a national convention. Another trend is to stage earlier and earlier primaries, given impetus by Super Tuesday and the mid-1990s move (since repealed) of the California primary and its bloc of votes—the largest—from June to March. In order to retain its tradition as the first primary in the country (and adhere to a state law which requires it to be), New Hampshire's primary has moved back steadily, from early March to mid-January.

History

Criticisms
Great attention is paid to the results of the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary; however, critics, such as Mississippi secretary of state Eric Clark (see quote below), and Tennessee Senator William Brock, point out that these states are not representative of the United States as a whole: they are overwhelmingly white, more rural, and wealthier than the national average, and neither is located in the fast-growing West or South. For example, New Jersey and Montana, which are the last states to have their primaries, usually end up having no say in who the presidential candidate will be; in 2004, they had their primaries in June, 13 weeks after Senator John Kerry became unopposed:

Representativeness
States vie for earlier primaries in order to claim greater influence in the nomination process, as the early primaries can act as a signal to the nation, showing which candidates are popular and giving those who perform well early on the advantage of the bandwagon effect. Also, candidates can ignore primaries which fall after the nomination has already been secured, and would owe less to those states politically. As a result, rather than stretching from March to July, most primaries take place in a compressed time frame in February and March. National party leaders also have an interest in compressing the primary calendar, as it enables the party to reduce the chance of a bruising internecine battle and to preserve resources for the general campaign.
In such a primary season, however, many primaries will fall on the same day, forcing candidates to choose where to spend their time and resources. Indeed, Super Tuesday was created deliberately to increase the influence of the South. When states cannot agree to coordinate primaries, however, attention flows to larger states with large numbers of delegates at the expense of smaller ones. Because the candidate's time is limited, paid advertising may play a greater role. Moreover, a compressed calendar limits the ability of lesser-known candidates to corral resources and raise their visibility among voters, especially when a better-known candidate enjoys the financial and institutional backing of the party establishment.:

Front-loading and compression
There are several proposals of reforming the primary system. Some have called for a single nationwide primary to be held on one day. Others point out that requiring candidates to campaign in every state simultaneously would exacerbate the purported problem of campaigns being dominated by the candidates who raise the most money.

Reform proposals
Alternative reform concepts are typically designed around a graduated random presidential primary system, variations of which have been referred to as the American Plan or the California Plan. Such a system would return the presidential primary season to a more relaxed schedule. The idea is that fewer initial primaries, typically in smaller states, would allow grassroots campaigns to score early successes and pick up steam.

Graduated Random Presidential Primary System
A commission empaneled by the Republican National Committee recommended the Delaware Plan in 2000. Populous states objected to the plan, however, because it would have always scheduled their primaries at the end of the season. The Delaware Plan was put to vote at Republican National Convention of 2000 and rejected.

In fiction

Ames Straw Poll
Iowa caucus
New Hampshire primary
United States presidential election
United States presidential election debates
United States presidential nominating convention